May 2025

Bitwise operators are special symbols that work on individual bits of numbers. They let you combine, change, or check bits directly. In Python, these operators include & (AND), | (OR), ^ (XOR), << (left shift), and >> (right shift). Python lets you customize how these operators work on your own classes by using special methods […]

In Python, comparison operators like ==, !=, <, >, <=, and >= don’t just work with numbers—they can also be taught to work with your own custom classes. This is called comparison operator overloading. Instead of writing something like book1.compare(book2), you can simply write book1 == book2 or book1 < book2. This makes your code

In Python, unary operators are special symbols or functions that work with just one operand. You’ve probably seen them used with numbers: But what if you’re working with custom classes, like a Temperature or a Vector, and you want to use the same kind of expressions? Python allows you to overload unary operators using special

In Python, operator overloading allows you to define how built-in operators like +, -, *, or / behave when used with objects of your own classes. Instead of relying on method calls like vector1.add(vector2), you can write expressions such as vector1 + vector2, making your code more readable and intuitive. This feature is especially useful

Python is more than just a language for writing code—it’s a powerful tool for automation, scripting, and system integration. One of its most useful capabilities is the ability to run external programs directly from your Python scripts. This becomes essential when you need to: Whether you’re building developer utilities, scripting deployment processes, or simply chaining

In Python, a nonlocal variable is one that comes from an outer (but not global) function. When you use the nonlocal keyword, you tell Python, “Hey, I want to change that outer variable, not create a new one.” Why does this matter? Because sometimes, you want a nested function to remember and update something —

A closure is a special kind of function in Python that remembers values from the environment where it was created—even if that environment no longer exists. In other words, a closure “closes over” variables from its outer function and keeps them safe inside. Why does this matter? Closures help you keep data private and create

In Python, a curried function is a function that doesn’t take all its arguments at once. Instead, it takes them one by one—each time returning a new function that remembers the previous arguments. This continues until all the arguments are received and the final result can be produced. Why would you want to do that?

In Python, a docstring is a short message you write inside your code to explain what something does. It stands for documentation string. You place it right below a function, class, or module — inside triple quotes (“””like this”””). Docstrings are not comments. They are part of your code and can be seen when someone

Recursion in Python is when a function calls itself to solve smaller parts of a bigger problem. This technique is useful when a task can be broken into simpler sub-tasks that look just like the original—like counting backwards, breaking down a number, or exploring nested lists and trees. It helps you solve problems by repeating